1. Site Selection

The location of your shelter is as important as its construction. Poor site selection can lead to flooding, exposure to harsh elements, or other dangers.

Key Considerations for Site Selection:

1. High ground: Choose elevated areas to avoid water collection during rain
2. Natural protection: Look for areas with natural windbreaks like rock formations or dense vegetation
3. Water proximity: Stay close enough to water sources for convenience but far enough to avoid flooding (at least 200 paces from riverbanks)
4. Building materials: Ensure necessary construction materials are available nearby
5. Hazards assessment: Check for:
   • Dead trees or branches that could fall
   • Evidence of animal activity
   • Signs of previous flooding
   • Insect nests or colonies
6. Sun exposure: In cold environments, choose sites with maximum sun exposure; in hot environments, seek natural shade

Testing the Ground:

1. Dig a small test hole (hand depth) to check soil composition
2. Press your hand firmly against the ground to test for moisture
3. Sit or lie down briefly to feel for cold spots, rocks, roots, or ant colonies

2. Materials Gathering and Preparation

Efficient material gathering saves energy and ensures structural integrity. Different environments offer different materials, but these principles apply universally.

Primary Building Materials:

1. Structural elements:
   • Straight branches and saplings (wrist to ankle thickness) for framework
   • Flexible green branches (finger thickness) for binding and weaving
   • Sturdy logs for ground-level support
2. Covering materials:
   • Large leaves (palm, banana, etc.)
   • Grasses and reeds
   • Bark sheets (carefully harvested from dead trees)
   • Pine boughs or evergreen branches
   • Animal hides (if available)
3. Binding materials:
   • Plant fibers (inner bark of certain trees)
   • Flexible roots (spruce or pine)
   • Vines
   • Split green branches
4. Insulation materials:
   • Dry grasses
   • Moss
   • Leaves
   • Pine needles

Material Preparation Techniques:

1. Wood preparation:
   • Remove small branches and protrusions with stone tools
   • Straighten bent branches by carefully heating over fire and bending while hot
   • Split larger logs by hammering stone wedges with a rock
2. Binding material preparation:
   • Soak vines and flexible branches to increase pliability
   • Strip inner bark in long strands and twist into cordage
   • Test strength by trying to break with a firm pull
3. Covering material preparation:
   • Layer leaves to test waterproofing
   • Bundle grasses and tie in the middle
   • Remove debris from bark sheets

3. Basic Shelter Types and Construction Methods

Different environments and available materials dictate the most appropriate shelter type. Here are several proven designs that can be constructed with primitive tools.

A. Lean-To Shelter

The simplest and quickest emergency shelter, ideal for temporary use or as a windbreak.

1. Materials needed:
   • One sturdy ridge pole (2-3 meters long)
   • Two forked support branches
   • Multiple straight branches for the frame
   • Covering material (leaves, boughs, bark, etc.)
   • Binding material
2. Construction steps:
   • Find or create two forked supports and place them firmly in the ground about 2 meters apart
   • Place the ridge pole in the forks, ensuring it's secure and level
   • Lean straight branches against the ridge pole at 45° angles, spacing them 20-30 cm apart
   • Bind the top ends of these branches to the ridge pole
   • Add horizontal cross-members by tying branches across the angled supports
   • Layer covering material from bottom to top (like roof shingles) to shed water
   • Add a thick layer of insulating material inside if needed
3. Enhancements:
   • Build a reflector wall of logs or stones opposite the open side to reflect fire heat into the shelter
   • Dig a small drainage trench around the shelter to divert rainwater
   • Create a raised sleeping platform using branches to insulate from ground cold

B. Debris Hut

An excellent insulated shelter for cold environments, using natural debris as insulation.

1. Materials needed:
   • One sturdy ridge pole (3-4 meters long)
   • One forked support or tree
   • Multiple straight branches for ribs
   • Smaller branches for lattice
   • Large quantities of leaves, grass, moss, or other debris
2. Construction steps:
   • Place one end of the ridge pole in a natural fork or on a sturdy support about 1 meter high
   • Rest the other end on the ground, creating a sloped support
   • Place rib branches along both sides of the ridge pole, creating an A-frame structure
   • Add lattice branches horizontally across the ribs
   • Pile debris (leaves, grass, pine needles) on the frame to a thickness of at least 60 cm
   • Create a small entrance at the high end, just large enough to crawl through
   • Line the inside with dry material for bedding
3. Critical details:
   • The debris layer must be thick enough that light cannot be seen through it
   • Pack the debris tightly to prevent it from blowing away
   • The entrance should face away from prevailing winds
   • Body heat alone will warm this shelter if properly constructed

C. Wickiup/Tipi Structure

A conical shelter suitable for longer-term use, providing good protection in various weather conditions.

1. Materials needed:
   • 10-20 straight poles (2-4 meters long)
   • Covering material (bark sheets, hides, or thatching)
   • Binding material
   • Stones for fire pit (optional)
2. Construction steps:
   • Clear a circular area about 2-3 meters in diameter
   • Select three sturdy poles and bind them together near the top
   • Stand this tripod up and spread the legs in a triangle
   • Add additional poles, leaning them against the tripod in a circular pattern
   • Bind all poles together at the top
   • Weave horizontal flexible branches between the vertical poles for added stability
   • Apply covering material from bottom to top, overlapping to shed water
   • Leave a small opening at the top for smoke ventilation
   • Create a door flap using extra covering material
3. Interior features:
   • Dig a small fire pit in the center if planning to have an internal fire
   • Line the fire pit with stones
   • Create sleeping platforms around the perimeter
   • Add insulation to the floor with dry grass or pine boughs

D. Pit House

A semi-permanent shelter offering excellent insulation in cold climates.

1. Materials needed:
   • Digging tools (sharpened sticks, flat stones)
   • Structural poles for roof
   • Covering material
   • Insulating material
2. Construction steps:
   • Dig a circular or rectangular pit about 1 meter deep and 2-3 meters across
   • Create a framework of poles over the pit, either in an A-frame or dome shape
   • Cover the framework with branches, bark, or other available materials
   • Add a thick layer of earth over the covering (15-20 cm)
   • Leave a smoke hole at the top and an entrance on one side
   • Create steps into the pit using logs or stones
   • Line the walls with insulating material if available
3. Important considerations:
   • Ensure the ground is not prone to flooding
   • The roof must be strong enough to support the earth covering
   • Create drainage channels around the structure
   • The entrance should ideally face away from prevailing winds

4. Advanced Construction Techniques

These methods require more time and skill but create more durable and comfortable shelters.

A. Wattle and Daub Walls

1. Materials:
   • Vertical support stakes
   • Flexible branches for weaving
   • Clay-rich soil
   • Grass or animal hair for binding
   • Water
2. Process:
   • Drive stakes into the ground in a row, spacing them 30-40 cm apart
   • Weave flexible branches horizontally between the stakes (wattle)
   • Mix clay soil with water and binding material (grass/hair) to create daub
   • Apply the daub mixture to both sides of the wattle framework
   • Allow to dry completely before adding another layer if needed

B. Thatched Roofing

1. Materials:
   • Long grasses, reeds, or palm fronds
   • Binding material
   • Roof framework of poles
2. Process:
   • Harvest and dry grasses or reeds
   • Bundle materials in even-sized bunches
   • Starting at the bottom edge of the roof, tie bundles to the framework
   • Overlap each successive row by at least half the length of the material
   • Work upward toward the peak
   • Create a ridge cap with extra material at the peak
3. Key details:
   • The roof pitch should be at least 45° for proper water shedding
   • Thatch thickness should be at least 30 cm for good insulation and waterproofing
   • Properly constructed thatch can last several years

C. Stone Foundation Techniques

1. Materials:
   • Flat stones of various sizes
   • Clay or mud for mortar
   • Smaller stones for filling gaps
2. Process:
   • Dig a shallow trench where the wall will stand
   • Place the largest, flattest stones as the base layer
   • Build upward, staggering the joints between stones
   • Use smaller stones to fill gaps
   • Apply clay mortar between stones for stability
   • Ensure the top is level for supporting wooden structures

5. Weatherproofing and Maintenance

Proper weatherproofing and regular maintenance extend shelter life and improve comfort.

A. Waterproofing Techniques

1. Natural waterproofing materials:
   • Pine resin or tree sap
   • Animal fat
   • Clay
2. Application methods:
   • Heat pine resin until liquid and apply to seams and joints
   • Mix animal fat with ash and apply to covering materials
   • Create overlapping layers of covering material
   • Ensure proper roof pitch for water runoff

B. Insulation Methods

1. Wall insulation:
   • Create double walls with debris filling
   • Pack moss between structural elements
   • Add extra layers of covering material
2. Floor insulation:
   • Create raised sleeping platforms
   • Layer dry grass, pine needles, or leaves on the floor
   • Use flat stones as thermal mass near fire pits

C. Regular Maintenance Tasks

1. Daily checks:
   • Inspect for new leaks after rain
   • Check structural integrity
   • Ensure ventilation is functioning
2. Seasonal maintenance:
   • Add new covering material before rainy seasons
   • Reinforce structure before windy seasons
   • Add insulation before cold seasons
   • Clear debris from drainage channels