1. Tool Making Fundamentals

Material Selection

1. Stone materials:
   • Identify workable stone types: flint, obsidian, chert, quartzite, and basalt
   • Test stones by striking them together - good toolmaking stones produce clean breaks with sharp edges
   • Collect a variety of sizes for different tool applications
2. Organic materials:
   • Hardwoods: oak, maple, hickory for durable tools
   • Softwoods: pine, cedar for fire-starting and lightweight applications
   • Bone: from large mammals, particularly leg bones which are straight and dense
   • Antler: naturally strong and slightly flexible
   • Shell: for cutting and scraping tools

Basic Tool Categories

1. Cutting tools:
   • Sharp-edged stone flakes for immediate cutting needs
   • Shaped hand axes for heavier cutting tasks
   • Bone knives for precision cutting
2. Scraping tools:
   • End scrapers for preparing hides
   • Side scrapers for woodworking
   • Shell scrapers for delicate work
3. Piercing tools:
   • Bone awls for puncturing hides
   • Stone drills for creating holes in wood, bone, and shell
   • Pointed sticks hardened by fire
4. Pounding tools:
   • Hammerstones for breaking nuts and seeds
   • Stone mauls for driving stakes
   • Wooden mallets for more controlled force

2. Advanced Stone Working Techniques

Bipolar Technique

1. Process:
   • Place a stone core on a flat anvil stone
   • Strike the top of the core with a hammerstone
   • The force travels through the core and creates flakes from both ends
   • Useful for working with smaller stones or creating specific flake shapes
2. Applications:
   • Creating small, precise tools
   • Maximizing material from limited stone resources
   • Producing thin, sharp flakes

Heat Treatment

1. Process:
   • Slowly heat selected stones by burying them near (not in) a fire
   • Maintain consistent temperature for several hours
   • Allow to cool slowly by leaving buried as fire dies out
   • The heating changes the crystalline structure, making flaking more predictable
2. Benefits:
   • Improves flaking quality of many stones
   • Creates smoother, more controlled breaks
   • Allows for more precise tool making

Core Preparation

1. Platform preparation:
   • Create a flat striking surface (platform) on the core
   • Abrade the edge of the platform to remove overhangs
   • This preparation allows for more controlled flake removal
2. Ridge creation:
   • Create a guiding ridge on the core
   • Strike along this ridge to remove long, straight blades
   • This technique maximizes usable material from each core

3. Hafting and Composite Tools

Basic Hafting Methods

1. Split-shaft method:
   • Split one end of a wooden handle
   • Insert the stone tool into the split
   • Secure with cordage wrapped tightly around the split section
   • Apply pine resin or birch tar adhesive if available
2. Socket method:
   • Create a hole or socket in the handle
   • Shape the tool to fit into this socket
   • Secure with adhesive and binding

Adhesive Production

1. Pine resin adhesive:
   • Collect hardened resin from pine trees
   • Heat slowly until melted
   • Mix with crushed charcoal and fine sand (1:1:1 ratio)
   • The charcoal and sand act as fillers to prevent cracking
2. Birch bark tar:
   • Collect strips of birch bark
   • Place in a small clay container with a small hole
   • Bury the container upside down over another container
   • Heat from above for several hours
   • The tar will drip into the lower container

Composite Tool Examples

1. Hafted axe:
   • Shape a stone axe head with a groove or notches
   • Select a sturdy wooden handle with a naturally curved end
   • Secure the axe head to the curved end using the split-shaft method
   • Reinforce with sinew or plant fiber cordage
   • Apply adhesive to increase stability
2. Spear thrower (atlatl):
   • Create a wooden shaft about 2 feet long
   • Carve a hook or socket at one end
   • The hook engages the end of a spear
   • This extension of the arm increases throwing distance and power

4. Fire Management Technologies

Fire Starting Methods

1. Bow drill method:
   • Create a bow using a flexible branch and cordage
   • Make a spindle from dry, non-resinous wood
   • Use a socket piece (can be stone with a depression) to hold the top of the spindle
   • Prepare a fireboard with a small depression and notch
   • Use the bow to rotate the spindle rapidly
   • Collect the ember in tinder placed under the notch
2. Fire plow:
   • Create a groove in a base board
   • Use a hardwood stick to plow back and forth in the groove
   • The friction creates fine dust that eventually ignites

Fire Maintenance

1. Slow-burning materials:
   • Identify materials that burn slowly: dried animal dung, certain fungi, dense wood
   • Use these to maintain fire overnight without constant attention
   • Layer these materials with faster-burning materials for temperature control
2. Fire carrying:
   • Create a fire bundle using a large piece of bark
   • Fill with slow-burning embers and tinder
   • Wrap carefully to allow minimal airflow
   • This allows transport of fire between locations

Specialized Fire Uses

1. Hardening wood:
   • Carefully char wooden points in fire
   • Remove before the wood actually burns
   • Scrape away the charred portion
   • Repeat several times to create a hardened point
2. Cooking pit:
   • Dig a pit approximately 2-3 feet deep
   • Line with stones if available
   • Build a fire in the pit and allow it to burn down to coals
   • Place food wrapped in leaves on the coals
   • Cover with earth to trap heat
   • This slow-cooking method works well for roots, tubers, and meat

5. Shelter Construction Techniques

Semi-Permanent Structures

1. Post and thatch dwelling:
   • Create a circular arrangement of sturdy posts
   • Weave flexible branches between posts to create walls
   • Construct a conical roof frame using long poles
   • Thatch the roof with overlapping layers of grass, reeds, or palm fronds
   • Start thatching from the bottom and work upward
   • Leave a smoke hole at the top
2. Earth lodge:
   • Dig a circular pit 1-3 feet deep
   • Erect a frame of poles around and over the pit
   • Cover the frame with branches, grass, and a final layer of earth
   • Create an entrance tunnel that helps prevent heat loss
   • Build a central hearth with stones

Temporary Shelters

1. Brush shelter:
   • Create a simple frame using branches
   • Weave smaller branches through the frame
   • Cover with leafy branches, ferns, or other vegetation
   • Add multiple layers for insulation and waterproofing
   • Can be built in 1-2 hours for emergency shelter
2. Snow shelter:
   • In winter conditions, pile snow into a mound at least 4 feet high
   • Allow snow to settle and harden for 1-2 hours
   • Dig out an entrance and hollow out the interior
   • The domed shape provides excellent structural integrity
   • Snow provides insulation while body heat warms the interior

6. Containers and Storage

Natural Containers

1. Gourd vessels:
   • Grow or collect large gourds
   • Allow to dry completely
   • Cut open and remove seeds and pulp
   • Seal with pine resin or beeswax if available
   • Use for water storage, cooking, and carrying
2. Large shells:
   • Collect large shells from beaches or riverbanks
   • Clean thoroughly
   • Use as is or modify edges for specific purposes
   • Excellent for water collection and food preparation

Constructed Containers

1. Bark containers:
   • Harvest large pieces of birch or similar bark in spring when most pliable
   • Fold into box or container shape
   • Secure corners with wooden pins or stitching
   • Seal seams with pine resin
   • These lightweight containers are excellent for gathering and storage
2. Coiled baskets:
   • Collect long, flexible plant fibers or grasses
   • Create a small coil as the base
   • Wrap the coil with thin strips of fiber
   • Continue adding to the coil in a spiral pattern
   • Stitch each new round to the previous one
   • Shape as desired by varying the tightness of the coil

Food Storage Methods

1. Smoking and drying:
   • Construct a simple rack above a low, smoky fire
   • Cut meat into thin strips for faster drying
   • Maintain smoke and low heat for several days
   • The combination of drying and smoke preserves meat for months
2. Storage pits:
   • Dig pits in well-drained soil
   • Line with grasses or bark
   • Place food inside, often in containers
   • Cover with a layer of grass, then stones, then earth
   • The cool, stable temperature preserves many foods
   • Mark the location for future retrieval

7. Hunting and Fishing Technologies

Projectile Weapons

1. Spear:
   • Select a straight shaft 6-8 feet long
   • Create a stone or bone point
   • Attach the point using hafting techniques
   • Balance the spear for throwing accuracy
   • Can be used for thrusting or throwing
2. Bola:
   • Collect 2-3 round stones
   • Attach each to a length of cordage
   • Tie the cords together at the opposite end
   • Throw by holding one stone and swinging the others
   • Wraps around animal legs for immobilization

Trapping Methods

1. Snare trap:
   • Create a noose from cordage
   • Attach to a bent sapling as a spring mechanism
   • Set a trigger that releases when disturbed
   • The sapling springs upward, tightening the noose
   • Place along animal trails or near burrows
2. Fish weir:
   • Build a V-shaped fence in a stream using stakes and woven branches
   • Direct the point of the V downstream
   • Create a collection area or trap at the point
   • Fish swimming downstream are funneled into the trap

Hunting Strategies

1. Persistence hunting:
   • Track an animal continuously
   • Pursue at a steady pace that prevents the animal from resting
   • Eventually, the animal becomes exhausted and can be approached closely
   • This technique uses humans' superior endurance and cooling system
2. Communal drives:
   • Coordinate multiple people to drive animals toward a predetermined location
   • Set up barriers or natural features to funnel animals
   • Position hunters at strategic points for the final kill
   • This method is effective for larger game or multiple animals

8. Transportation Technologies

Land Transportation

1. Travois:
   • Construct using two long poles joined at one end
   • The joined end is dragged or attached to a person or dog
   • Create a platform between the poles using crosspieces
   • Lash everything securely with cordage
   • Allows transport of heavy loads over land
2. Sledge:
   • Create a flat platform with curved front edges
   • Attach pull ropes or harness
   • Works well on snow, ice, or smooth ground
   • Can transport much heavier loads than carrying

Water Transportation

1. Log raft:
   • Collect several straight logs of similar size
   • Arrange side by side
   • Secure with crosspieces lashed firmly to each log
   • Create a raised platform if needed to keep cargo dry
   • Propel using poles or paddles
2. Dugout canoe:
   • Select a large, straight tree trunk
   • Fell using stone axes and controlled burning
   • Burn and scrape out the center using fire and stone tools
   • Shape the exterior for better hydrodynamics
   • Create outriggers if needed for stability in rough water

9. Fiber Technologies

Cordage Production

1. Basic two-ply cordage:
   • Collect fibrous materials (plant fibers, sinew, hair)
   • Prepare by cleaning and separating into strands
   • Twist individual strands clockwise
   • Cross the strands and twist together counterclockwise
   • Continue adding new material to extend length
   • This opposing twist creates self-tightening cordage
2. Rope making:
   • Create multiple strands of two-ply cordage
   • Twist these strands together using the same opposing twist method
   • This creates stronger rope for heavier applications
   • Test strength before relying on it for critical uses

Netting Techniques

1. Basic net construction:
   • Create a starter cord as the top of the net
   • Tie loops of consistent size along this cord
   • Create subsequent rows by tying new loops through the previous row
   • Use a measuring stick to maintain consistent loop size
   • Continue until desired net size is achieved
2. Applications:
   • Fishing nets of various sizes
   • Carrying nets for transport
   • Hunting nets for small game
   • Storage nets for keeping food away from animals

Simple Weaving

1. Twined weaving:
   • Set up vertical elements (warp)
   • Work horizontal elements (weft) in pairs
   • Twist the weft elements around each warp element
   • This creates a sturdy fabric for mats, baskets, and simple clothing
2. Plaiting:
   • Arrange elements in perpendicular directions
   • Weave in an over-under pattern
   • This technique works well for mats, baskets, and screens
   • Can be done with wide or narrow elements depending on the application

10. Communication and Record Keeping

Visual Communication

1. Pictographs:
   • Create paint from minerals (ochre, charcoal) mixed with animal fat or plant oils
   • Apply to rock surfaces, bark, or hide
   • Use simple representations of animals, people, or events
   • These can communicate information to others or record significant events
2. Trail markers:
   • Bend young trees in specific directions
   • Stack stones in recognizable patterns
   • Cut marks into tree bark
   • These markers can indicate trails, water sources, or other important locations

Memory Systems

1. Tally sticks:
   • Create notches in sticks to record quantities or time periods
   • Different patterns can represent different types of information
   • These portable records help track trades, lunar cycles, or other countable events
2. Knotted cords:
   • Tie knots in cordage to record information
   • Vary the type, size, and spacing of knots to encode different meanings
   • Use different colored cords for different categories of information
   • This system can record complex information in a portable format